Exploring Islamophobia: A Snapshot of Current Research | Blog

Islamophobia, broadly understood as a prejudice against or hatred of Islam and Muslims, has emerged as a significant global phenomenon with profound consequences for Muslim communities worldwide. In recent decades, it has also garnered much scholarly attention. This short literature review briefly synthesizes existing research on Islamophobia, presenting prominent themes of exploration: its definitions, historical roots, diverse manifestations across various contexts, and impact on the mental, physical, and spiritual well-being of Muslims. Most critically, it highlights several key research gaps and proposes potential avenues for future exploration that align with Yaqeen Institute’s focus on producing faith-building content.

Much research focuses on defining Islamophobia and the significant challenge that this presents, as the term itself is subject to ongoing debate and contestation (Sayyid, 2014; Beydoun, 2016; Mondon and Winter, 2017). While a widely accepted, universally applicable definition remains elusive, many scholars agree that Islamophobia encompasses a range of negative attitudes, prejudices, and discriminatory practices directed towards Muslims and Islam (Jaber, 2022; Shufaq, 2023). These can manifest as fear or threat perception associated with Islam and Muslims, prejudicial attitudes, and discriminatory actions (Kathawalla et al., 2024). Some researchers emphasize the role of stereotypes and misunderstandings in shaping Islamophobic sentiments (Shufaq, 2023), while others highlight the intersectional nature of Islamophobia, recognizing its links to racism, xenophobia, and other forms of prejudice (Sayyid, 2014; Lauwers, 2019). The conceptualization of Islamophobia as a form of racism is also gaining traction (Lauwers, 2019), and thus it is often referred to as anti-Muslim racism (Elahi and Khan, 1997). Furthermore, a strong current of scholars argue that Islamophobia is not merely a matter of individual prejudice but is embedded in institutional structures and political processes (Bazian, 2018; Husain, 2020; Runnymede Trust, 2024). The lack of a single, universally agreed-upon definition underscores the complexity of the phenomenon and the need for further research to refine and clarify the conceptual boundaries of Islamophobia.

Many Muslim researchers are highlighting the negative consequences of a hyper-focus on the definition, meaning, and validity of Islamophobia as a concept, citing semantic diversion from the lived realities of Muslims as the main pitfall. Abstract debates over its definition and parameters often distract from the reality that Muslims are frequently judged based on assumptions about their beliefs, behavior, and politics—many of which lead to negative and harmful consequences in their lives (Runnymede Trust, 2024). This highlights an area of possible saturation and the need to redirect research back to mitigating the tangible effects of Islamophobia on Muslim communities, and particularly their faith. This is reinforced by the fact that despite the challenges in defining the phenomenon, the overwhelming consensus among researchers is that Islamophobia constitutes a significant form of discrimination with demonstrably negative consequences for Muslim communities.

Another main body of research focuses on the historical roots of Islamophobia, highlighting its complexity and deep intertwinement with broader historical power dynamics (Shufaq, 2023). Orientalist discourse, with its depiction of the “Orient” as exotic, backward, and inherently threatening to the “West,” has played a significant role in shaping negative perceptions of Islam and Muslims (Benlahcene, 2021; Thompson, 2013). Colonial encounters further fuelled these prejudices, reinforcing existing stereotypes and creating new ones (Benlahcene, 2021; Hunter, 2022). The events of September 11, 2001, marked a turning point, significantly escalating Islamophobic sentiments globally (Samari et al., 2018; Bazian, 2018). The subsequent “War on Terror” and associated security policies further contributed to the stigmatization of Muslims and the rise of anti-Muslim discrimination (Ali and Whitham, 2020; Khan et al., 2024; Atnashev, 2016). However, it is important to note that Islamophobia is not solely a post-9/11 phenomenon (Lopez, 2011; Hunter, 2022); its roots extend far back in history, shaped by a complex interplay of religious, political, and cultural factors (Benlahcene, 2021; Lean, 2017). 

A growing body of research centers on the contemporary manifestations of Islamophobia, exposing its diversity in encompassing hate speech, hate crimes, biased media representations, and discrimination in employment, housing, and education (Jaber, 2022; Khan et al., 2024; Noviati et al., 2024; Atkins, 2024; Saeed, 2016). These manifestations are not isolated incidents; they are often interconnected and reinforce each other, creating a climate of fear and insecurity for Muslim communities (Jaber, 2022). Scholars have delved into the securitization of Islam, examining how Islamic beliefs, practices, and Muslim communities are increasingly framed as security threats in both political discourse and policy (Eroukhmanoff, 2019; Hussain and Bagguley, 2012). This process, driven by post-9/11 geopolitics and the “War on Terror,” links Islam to issues of national security, often portraying Muslims as potential risks to social stability (Moulin, 2017; Fekete, 2004). Scholars argue that this securitization contributes to the marginalization and criminalization of Muslim identities, reinforcing Islamophobic stereotypes and justifying discriminatory practices (Abbas, 2021). Research in this area highlights the intersection of security policies, media representations, and the broader societal impact on Muslims, stressing the need for a critical understanding of how these narratives shape public perception and policy. Other studies set out to explore the relationship between secularism and race in social structures when theorizing Islamophobia (Sadequee, 2025).

Research in this area often takes on decolonial perspectives, seeking to expose the historical legacies of colonialism and Orientalism, and the role of political opportunism in fueling anti-Muslim sentiment (Benlahcene, 2021; Hunter, 2022; Runnymede Trust, 2024). A possible area of neglect has been the reliance on and perpetration of Islamophobia by the Zionist lobby, as well as its role in the early history of Zionist ideology.

Empirical research on Islamophobia has shown that the manifestation and impact of Islamophobia vary considerably across different national and regional contexts (Coyne, 2017; Shukri and Farhana, 2018). Studies have examined Islamophobia in Western countries (Jaber, 2022; Samari et al., 2018; Love, 2009; Saada, 2024; Khan et al., 2024; Noviati et al., 2024; Lean, 2017), focusing on the roles of media representations (Khan et al., 2024; Noviati et al., 2024; Cockbain, 2020; Lean, 2017), government policies (Ali and Whitham, 2020), and social attitudes (Coyne, 2017; Lean, 2017). Research in the United States has highlighted the intersectionality of race and Islamophobia (Love, 2009; Considine, 2017), exploring how racial bias exacerbates anti-Muslim discrimination (Love, 2009). In Europe, studies have analyzed the influence of far-right political movements, the impact of security measures on Muslim communities (Atnashev, 2016), and even the politics of the psy-disciplines in times of Islamophobia (Younis, 2022). Comparative studies have also examined the differences in how Islamophobia manifests in various regions of Canada (Coyne, 2017), revealing the influence of provincial political cultures on the expression of anti-Muslim prejudice (Coyne, 2017).

Research in non-Western contexts, such as China (Stroup, 2023), Indonesia (Shukri and Farhana, 2018), and India (Khan et al., 2024), has demonstrated that Islamophobia is not confined to the West, and that internal factors, such as rising conservatism and political polarization, can contribute to the rise of anti-Muslim sentiment (Shukri and Farhana, 2018; Khan et al., 2024). These comparative analyses reveal the complex and context-specific nature of Islamophobia, emphasizing the importance of considering local factors when studying and addressing this phenomenon (Shukri and Farhana, 2018). The diversity of contexts in which Islamophobia manifests highlights the need for tailored interventions that account for the specific socio-political dynamics at play in each setting.

The consequences of Islamophobia are far-reaching, affecting the mental and physical health of Muslim individuals and communities (Samari et al., 2018; Saada, 2024; Abu Khalaf et al., 2022; Atkins, 2024). Studies have documented the negative impacts of discrimination on mental health outcomes such as anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (Samari et al., 2018; Abu Khalaf et al., 2022). Islamophobia also undermines social cohesion by fostering distrust and alienation between Muslim and non-Muslim communities (Husain, 2020; Lean, 2017). The experience of discrimination can lead to social withdrawal, reduced civic engagement, and feelings of exclusion (Saada, 2024; Abu Khalaf et al, 2022; Atkins, 2024). A common claim in this literature is that Islamophobia is structurally and institutionally embedded, resulting in a multifaceted social exclusion of Muslims across Western societies (Kozarik, 2022). Furthermore, Islamophobia can restrict political participation, discouraging Muslims from engaging in political processes and advocating for their rights (Husain, 2020). The cumulative effect of these impacts can have significant social and economic consequences for Muslim communities (Jaber, 2022).

The substantial negative impacts on mental health, social cohesion, and political participation highlight the urgent need for comprehensive strategies to address Islamophobia and promote social justice (Samari et al., 2018; Abu Khalaf et al., 2022). Further research is needed to fully understand the long-term consequences of Islamophobia and to develop effective interventions to mitigate its harmful effects.

Far less attention has been given to how Islamophobia affects the faith development of Muslim individuals. Some scholarship has begun to analyze the effects of Muslims internalizing Islamophobic tropes. Issues that present include shifts in religious interpretations (more assertive or defensive), weakened sense of Muslim identity, doubts in faith, and intra-community conflict (Suleiman, 2017; Gil-Benumeya, 2023; Merchant, 2016).  The constant barrage of negative stereotypes and representations can cultivate internalized Islamophobia, where individuals begin to question their own beliefs and values (Suleiman, 2017). This phenomenon is particularly acute among young Muslims (Suleiman, 2017; Shufaq, 2023), who are more susceptible to societal pressures and peer influence. The constant exposure to negative portrayals of Islam can lead to feelings of shame, guilt, and doubt regarding their religious identity (Suleiman, 2017). This erosion of religious confidence can manifest in various ways, such as decreased participation in religious practices, a weakening of the connection to their faith community, and a pervasive sense of insecurity (Shufaq, 2023).  Furthermore, the internalization of Islamophobic narratives can lead to self-censorship and a reluctance to openly express one’s faith, further isolating individuals and hindering their spiritual growth.

However, the experience of discrimination can also paradoxically strengthen religious identity, fostering a sense of collective solidarity and resilience within the Muslim community (Barkdull et al., 2016; Ali, 2021). This reactive identity formation, where individuals reaffirm their faith in response to adversity, is a complex and often powerful response to marginalization. The study of religious identity formation, specifically resilience, within the context of Islamophobia thus presents an opportunity for exploration, as a nuanced understanding of these multifaceted and often contradictory responses is needed.

While significant progress has been made in understanding the multifaceted nature of Islamophobia, its historical roots, contemporary manifestations, and profound impacts on individuals and communities, several critical research gaps remain. In particular, and relevant to Yaqeen’s objectives, is the absence of faith-driven research that not only focuses on the intersection of Islamophobia and faith development but centers Islamic ethical, theological, and legal frameworks in the process.

Yaqeen addresses many areas that can be broadly applied to the topic of Islamophobia, including papers that address doubts surrounding violence and war in Islam as well as those that strengthen conviction in Allah’s protection and guidance. However, we currently have a limited number of resources addressing the topic of Islamophobia directly and through the lens of Qur’anic and prophetic wisdoms. 

Our current publications mirror much of the pre-existing literature and are largely confined to diagnostic approaches that seek to explain and identify the phenomenon in society, focusing on the social and political definitions and ramifications. We seek to fill this gap, offering novel research that draws from the Qur’an, Sunnah, and rich history of Islamic scholarship to strengthen the faith and conviction of Muslims in times of Islamophobia.

Abbas, Tahir. “Intersecting Globalization, Islamophobia, Radicalization, and Securitization in Islam and security in the West.” In Islam and Security in the West, edited by Stephan Bonino and Roberta Ricucci. Springer Nature Link, 2021.

Abu Khalaf, Nadin, Ashley B. Woolweaver, Roslyn Reynoso Marmolejos, Grace A. Little, Katheryn Burnett, and Dorothy L. Espelage. “The Impact of Islamophobia on Muslim Students: A Systematic Review of the Literature.” School Psychology Review 52, no. 2 (2022): 206-223.

Ali, Hadeel. “The Experiences and Mental Health Impact of Islamophobia on Muslim Americans Following the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election: A Hermeneutic Phenomenological Study.” Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 2021. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/1886.

Ali, Nadya and Ben Whitham. “Racial Capitalism, Islamophobia, and Austerity.” International Political Sociology 15, no. 2 (2020): 190-211.

Atkins, Tia. “The Impact of Islamic Extremist Terrorist Attacks on the British Muslim Community.” International Journal of European Studies 8, no. 1 (2024): 1-8.

Atnashev, Vadim. “Impact of Islamophobia and Human Rights: Violations to the Radicalization of Muslim Communities.” Middle East Review of Public Administration 2, no. 1 (2016): 91-107.

Barkdull, Carenlee, Khadija Khaja, Irene Queiro-Tajalli, Amy Swart, Dianne Cunningham, and Sheila Dennis. “Experiences of Muslims in four Western countries post—9/11.” Journal of Women & Social Work 26, no. 2 (2011): 139-153.

Bazian, Hatem. “Islamophobia, Clash of Civilizations, and Forging a Post-Cold War Order!” Religions 9, no. 9 (2018): 282-294.

Benlahcene, Badrane. “Orientalism as a Cultural Root of Western Islamophobia.” Islamic Thought and Civilization (JITC) 11, no. 2 (2021): 69-86.

Beydoun, Khaled. “Islamophobia: Toward a Legal Definition and Framework.” Columbia Law Review 116 (2016).

Considine, Craig. “The Racialization of Islam in the United States: Islamophobia, Hate Crimes, and Flying while Brown.” Religions 8, no. 9 (2017): 165-183.

Coyne, Shannon. “Discrimination within Political Cultures: Contrasting Islamophobia in Canadian Regions.” Political Science Undergraduate Review 2, no. 2 (2017): 5-13.

Elahi, Farah, and Omar Khan. “ Islamophobia: Still A Challenge For Us All.” Runnymede, 2017. https://www.runnymedetrust.org/publications/islamophobia-still-a-challenge-for-us-all.

Eroukhmanoff, Clara. The securitisation of Islam: Covert Racism and Affect in the United States post-9/11. Manchester University Press, 2019.

Fekete, Liz. “Anti-Muslim Racism and the European Security State.” Race & Class 46, no. 1 (2004): 3-29.

Gil-Benumeya, Daniel. “The Consent of the Oppressed: An Analysis of Internalized Racism and Islamophobia among Muslims in Spain.” Sociological Perspectives 66, no. 6 (2023): 1146-1164.

Hunter, Mary. “Islamophobia and Anti-Pakistani Sentiment: European Origins, Developments and Preventative Strategies.” IPRI Journal XXII, no.1 (2022): 45-71.

Husain, Sara Cheikh. “Muslim Community Organizations’ Perceptions of Islamophobia: Towards an Informed Countering Response.” Religions 11, no. 10 (2020): 485-508.

Hussain, Yasmin, and Paul Bagguley. “Securitised citizens: Islamophobia, racism and the 7/7 London bombings.” The Sociological Review 60, no. 4 (2012): 715-734.

Jaber, Nihaya. “Islamophobia: Definition, History, and Aspects.” Nazhruna: Jurnal Pendidikan Islam 5, no. 2 (2022): 327-338.

Kathawalla, Ummul-Kiram, Quratulain Gulamhussein, Fei Bi Chan, Amy Riegelman, and Moin Syed. “Conceptualization and Measurement of Islamophobia: A Systematic Review.” Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 24, no. 3 (2024): 832-924.

Khan, Muhammad Riaz, Zuhana Mohamed Zin, and Wan Farah Wani Binti Wan Fakhruddin. “Media Representations of Islam and Muslims in Global Contexts (2002-2022): A Systematic Literature Review.” Studies in Media and Communication 13, no. 1 (2024): 284-300.

Khan, Robina, Maryam Siddique, and Zafar Abbas. “The Rise of Islamophobia in India: Violation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedom of Indian Muslims.” Global Legal Studies Review IX, no. II (2024): 21-29.

Lauwers, Anna Sophie. “Is Islamophobia (Always) Racism?” Critical Philosophy of Race 7, no. 2 (2019): 306-332.

Lean, Nathan. The Islamophobia Industry: How the Right Manufactures Hatred of Muslims. Pluto Press, 2017.

Lopez, Fernando Bravo. “Towards a Definition of Islamophobia: Approximations of the Early Twentieth Century.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 34, no. 4 (2010): 556-573.

Love, Erik. “Confronting Islamophobia in the United States: Framing Civil Rights Activism Among Middle Eastern Americans.” Patterns of Prejudice 43, no. 3-4 (2009): 401-425. 

Merchant, Natasha H. “Responses to Islam in the Classroom: A Case of Muslim Girls from Minority Communities of Interpretation.” International Journal of Multicultural Education 18, no. 1 (2016): 183-199. 

Mondon, Aurelien, and Aaron Winter. “Articulations of Islamophobia: From the Extreme to the Mainstream?” Ethnic and Racial Studies 40, no. 13 (2016): 2151-2179.

Noviati, Cora Elly, Octora Permata, Encik Lukmanul Hakim, and Gatot Iriyanto. “Islamophobia in Multicultural America: Media Narratives, Challenges, and Muslim Responses.” Kawanua International Journal of Multicultural Studies 5, no. 1 (2024): 139-158.

Runnymede Trust.“Islamophobia: the intensification of racism against Muslim communities in the UK.” Runnymede, 2024. https://www.runnymedetrust.org/publications/islamophobia-the-intensification-of-racism-against-muslim-communities-in-the-uk.

Saada, Najwan. “Teaching Against Islamophobia: Educational Interventions.” Multicultural Perspectives 26, no. 1 (2024): 14-26.  

Sadequee, Sharmin., ed. Secularism, Race, and the Politics of Islamophobia. University of Alberta Press, 2025.

Saeed, Tania. Islamophobia and Securitization: Religion, Ethnicity and the Female Voice. Palgrave, 2016.

Samari, Goleen, Héctor E. Alcal, and Mienah Z. Sharif. “Islamophobia, Health, and Public Health: A Systematic Literature Review.” American Public Health Association 108, no. 6 (2018): e1-e9.

Sayyid, S. 2014. “A Measure of Islamophobia.” Pluto Journals 2, no. 1 (2014): 10-25.

Shufaq, Ayesha. “Developing the Conceptual Framework for Islamophobia: A Comprehensive Literature Review.” Spring Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences 2, no. 10 (2023): 60-68.

Shukri, Mohamad, and Syaza Farhana. “Islamophobia in the most populous Muslim majority country: a case study of Indonesia.” International Conference on Religion, Culture and Governance in the Contemporary World (ICRCG 2018), 3rd-4th October 2018, Kuala Lumpur. (Unpublished).

Suleiman, Omar. “Internalized Islamophobia: Exploring the Faith and Identity Crisis of American Muslim Youth.” Islamophobia Studies Journal 4, no. 1 (2017).

Thompson, Philip. “Allen’s Islamophobia and the British news media: a critical evaluation of Islamophobia as a concept and its application to the written news media in Britain between 2001 and 2008.” Master’s Thesis, University of Wales Trinity Saint David. 2013. https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/id/eprint/354/.

Younis, Tarek. The Muslim, State and Mind: Psychology in Times of Islamophobia. Sage Publications Ltd, 2022.